Commentary: Gold mines and gravestones in the Sahara

When an African gold-mining operation ran up against unusual rock formations that according to local rumours might be human graves, a religious ruling forced mine expansion plans to be put on hold.

It seemed there was no way out. But my consulting firm Wardell Armstrong International stepped in to help resolve the problem with geological, geoforensic and legal expertise.

Planned expansions to existing mines often have to be undertaken with the same level of care as the original development. The environmental impacts of noise and dust caused by construction and the potential effects on water and soil all need to be considered, as do social and cultural issues, and their impact on local communities.

Tailings dams in particular need detailed design and planning to ensure they meet the best international practices. But planners may not expect to encounter what might be human graves. This was the situation faced by a mining company operating in the Sahara desert when it planned to build additional dams for cyanide tailings needed for its rapidly expanding gold production. At the end of 2008 the company hit a major problem: six unusual rock formations that could have been nomadic graves were located by local workers within the mine area.

Keen to respect the local community, culture and tradition, the mining company asked for my opinion. I was a principal environmental geologist at Wardell, carrying out geotechnical and environmental work for the mining company at the time.
My initial assessment indicated that some of the rock formations might well prove to be graves, as rumoured by the local nomadic mine workers, who were concerned that the sites might not be respected.

There were strong grounds for believing that at least some of the unusual rock formations were genuine nomadic human graves. Several had the distinctive headstone and footstone, and were clearly orientated towards Mecca.

The mining company wanted to keep the trust of its workforce and neighbours by respecting local families and traditions. At the same time, its local gold-mining program depended on being able to build the new tailings dams. Without these, production would stop.

The company made a request to proceed at the national government level, but was refused by the Ministry of Religious Affairs.

In 2010 the company again turned to our firm for advice, even though it seemed unlikely that the religious ruling could be overturned or changed.

But something else had changed in the meantime: Further piles of stones had appeared, possibly prompted by offers of compensation by the mining company. Now there were 30 sites that needed to be investigated, or 24 more than the original six.

It was important to treat all 30 rock formations with the same degree of care and respect, so we made some logical first steps. These included a site survey to plot all 30 sites, a photographic record for each, and a study of their formation and orientation. This was supported by a petrographic assessment of area that involved looking at the rock strata where the formations were found, to gauge whether the rocks that had been used were local or imported.

A conceptual geological model for the graves was developed by Laurance Donnelly, a forensic geologist at Wardell Armstrong, who is experienced in searching for graves and other burials. This showed a variable amount of silt, sand and gravel that may have been deposited by geomorphological processes, including aeolian, fluvial or colluvial desert. These covered bedrock comprising fractured igneous and metamorphic granitic rocks. The depth of the superficial cover was not known.

From talking to local people and elders, it looked likely that any genuine nomadic graves would predate the copper- and gold-mining operations. The area had been a centuries-old fertile wadi and a busy camel-trading post used by nomads.

In the 1960s, however, a smallpox epidemic had caused many deaths. The shallow graves dug at the time would have been made with hand tools and in reasonably soft ground. This knowledge provided some useful early clues as to which of the 30 sites might be genuine sites of human remains.

The conceptual geological model enabled a methodology to be developed for each grave. There were three options under consideration by the mining company: an exhumation of each location; the development of a full geoforensic search strategy by our firm; or a legal approach.

A direct invasive investigation and exhumation would be the simplest and most obvious option, using a combination of probing or trenching techniques to determine the presence of any human remains such as skeletonized bone, mummified human remains, clothing and other associated objects or items. It would be absolutely critical, however, to do anything like this with full respect to Islamic laws and in accordance with cultural traditions.

The forensic geology option would involve the geological and geomorphological mapping of the alleged grave locations, sampling the soils and analyzing the volatile organic compounds, the design and deployment of a geophysical survey and the possible deployment of specially trained cadaver dogs. Any positive indications or anomalies would need to be verified by probing, trenching or digging. Although this option would deliver a high assurance search, it was relatively more expensive, time consuming and would clearly disturb the graves.

The third option — involving the assessment of legal, religious and cultural issues relevant to the removal of any human remains — was the one chosen as the first step. For this, we called on Mohamed El-Hacen ould Lebatt, a professor of law and specialist in Islamic cultural laws and traditions.

Lebatt looked closely into Islamic law and scriptures. He also visited scholars and erudites who had been involved in similar cases and rulings in a number of African countries. He found that in certain circumstances it can be permissible to remove graves, if they are in the way of public interest or the Islamic people. He was also able to determine that it can be allowable under Islamic law to move a grave since the body “belongs to Allah” after death, rather than to the family of the person who has died. These findings proved to be decisive in changing the governmental ruling that had earlier stood in the way of allowing the mining company to build the new tailings dams. There was a clear interest in this for Islamic people, since it would enable several hundred to stay working and earn the money they needed to live.

With the government ruling changed, a committee was formed to visit all 30 sites and make a determination about each of them. It was made up of seven dignitaries, including local Hakim and Wali elders, a scholar, a local erudite, a representative from the mining company and a local national of Islamic faith from Wardell Armstrong. The committee agreed that six of the unusual rock piles should be investigated further by exhumation. On the day of the exhumation, four of the sites were found to be graves containing the remains of bodies. Two bodies were carefully removed under the supervision of the committee, placed in coffins and transported to a local cemetery where they were reburied with due reverence. It was agreed that the other two could remain in place, with earth bunds built around them where no expansion was planned as protection.

This case highlighted the complexity of issues when technical and cultural affairs overlap. Although it took time, patience and multidisciplinary expertise to resolve, the outcome proved successful for all the parties involved: Islamic law was consulted and followed with meticulous attention to correct protocol; the families of those who had been buried at least 50 years earlier saw the remains of their ancestors treated with full respect and dignity; and the mining company was able to build its new tailings dams and expand its gold-mining operations, securing the livelihoods of many local people.

The lega
l case has also created a milestone in Islamic law, and identified one acceptable way forward for mining companies facing similar situations in other countries.

— Based in the U.K., Christine Blackmore is a principal environmental geologist at Wardell Armstrong International, working in the overseas mining department.

With a strong heritage dating back more than 175 years, Wardell Armstrong is a leading independent engineering consultancy specializing in mineral resource development and management, with offices throughout the U.K., as well as Moscow and Almaty. Visit www.wardell-armstong.com for more information.